Three-Dimensional Printing of Cardiovascular Structures: A Literature Review

The human hearts limited regenerative potential, due to the absence of endogenous stem cells and terminal differentiation of cardiomyocytes, poses a challenge for conventional tissue engineering. Three-dimensional (3D) printing and bio-printing have emerged as transformative technologies in cardiovascular medicine, enabling the development of patient=specific anatomical models and bioengineered implants for therapeutic applications. This review examines over many studies, highlighting the innovations in 3D cardiovascular modelling, tissue engineering, and the integration of stem cell-derived bio-inks. High resolution imaging modalities like CT, MRI and echocardiography facilitate precise anatomical reconstruction, while bio-printing advances the fabrication of functional myocardial tissues, vascular grafts, and autologous heart valves. These developments address key limitations of conventional prosthetics, including immune rejection, poor biocompatibility, and the need for long term anticoagulation. However, challenge persist in replicating complex cardiac vascularisation and ensuring long term viability of bio printed constructs. Overall, 3D bio-printing holds substantial promise for personalised cardiovascular interventions, with ongoing advancements in cellular integrating, material science, and imaging poised to enhance its clinical translation.